Chaos, Creation, and the Limits of Divine Power

I finished my degree in Sociology with a minor in History, and since I work at a University that will let me receive more education for free, I've decided to pursue a second Bachelor's degree in Information Technology, and I'm finishing a minor in Religious Studies - just two classes to go! One of those classes is Religion, Violence and Peacebuilding (PHIL 366R), a fascinating exploration of how religious thought intersects with conflict and reconciliation. Each week, we study different scholars and reflect on their ideas through short writing assignments. This blog is where I share those reflections, weaving together academic insight and personal perspective.

Week 4 felt different as the campus was slowly reopening after last week's tragic event. With no class on Monday, we only had one class day on Wednesday to get all of the readings in. I read The Problem of Evil in Process Theism and Classical Free Will Theism by William Hasker and chapter two of The Providence of God by Paul Helm. At the end of the week, I was then asked to read Creation out of Nothing by David Griffin. After reading Griffin, I was asked to first concisely summarize his key points in 200-250 words, and then I was asked how Griffin would respond to William Hasker's central arguments in 250-300 words. Here is my submission for the assignment:

    David Ray Griffin argues that the traditional Christian doctrine of creatio ex nihilo and divine omnipotence make the problem of evil something we cannot solve. He proposes a different theodicy called process theism, that is rooted in the creation out of chaos. Process theism reimagines the nature of God – not as a source of evil, but as a loving and active presence striving to bring about good. Instead of creation out of nothing, God organized the world from pre-existing chaotic matter, which had its own tendencies and freedom. This way evil can exist without making God morally responsible for it. Griffin rejects God as omnipotent in the classical sense and calls his power persuasive, not coercive. He mentions that reality consists of autonomous agents (including humans and other entities) that God influences but cannot control. When it comes to evil, Griffin insists that evil is real and tragic, not illusory or necessary for a greater good. “Genuine” evil are events categorized as things that would be better if they had not occurred. Griffin’s view on divine power is also different as he sees God as perfect in love and wisdom but not all-powerful. He believes that evil arises from the freedom and unpredictability of the world, not from the divine will.

    David Griffin’s views stand in contrast to those of William Hasker, particularly in how each theologian understands divine power and the origin of evil. Griffin identifies as a process theologian and so he rejects the idea of God as omnipotent in the classical sense. He believes that if God had the power to prevent evil but chose not to, then God must not be good. He also believes that the traditional view of free will allows God to intervene which He chooses not to, which Griffin sees as morally problematic. Griffin supports creation out of chaos instead of creation out of nothing. If God created everything from nothing, then God is still responsible for creating beings capable of evil. Creation out of chaos avoids this by stating that freedom and unpredictability are built-in from the start. Hasker argues that natural evils are part of God’s necessary plan, but Griffin sees this as a troubling limitation on divine power. In open theism God created the world from nothing and could have designed it differently and so God is ultimately responsible for the evil that stems from it. In process theism God is part of the process of reality and constantly working to bring about good, but he cannot unilaterally prevent evil. The difference here makes it that God is not morally responsible for evil in the same way that open theism’s God might be.

References:

Griffin, D. R. (2006). Creation out of nothing: A biblical, philosophical, and scientific exploration. Westminster John Knox Press.

Hasker, W. (2000). The problem of evil in process theism and classical free will theism. Process Studies, 29(2), 194–208.

Helm, P. (1994). The providence of God. IVP Academic.

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From Classroom to Crisis: The Unthinkable After the Lecture

I finished my degree in Sociology with a minor in History, and since I work at a University that will let me receive more education for free, I've decided to pursue a second Bachelor's degree in Information Technology, and I'm finishing a minor in Religious Studies - just two classes to go! One of those classes is Religion, Violence and Peacebuilding (PHIL 366R), a fascinating exploration of how religious thought intersects with conflict and reconciliation. Each week, we study different scholars and reflect on their ideas through short writing assignments. This blog is where I share those reflections, weaving together academic insight and personal perspective.

Week 3, we read chapter one in Divided by Faith by Benjamin J. Kaplan and chapter 2 in Jihad and the Struggle for Islam by John Esposito. After class on Wednesday, September 10, our University was shut down and classes were cancelled as tragedy struck and a life was taken too soon. 

The fact that we had been talking about religious intolerance and violence just 25 minutes earlier was surreal and heartbreaking to me. There was no assignment for this week, and no other readings were assigned until the middle of next week to give faculty, staff, and students time to grieve and process what happened on our campus, where safety had now been shattered.

References:

Esposito, J. L. (1996). Jihad and the struggle for Islam. In The religion factor. Westminster John Knox Press.

Kaplan, B. J. (2007). Divided by faith: Religious conflict and the practice of toleration in early modern Europe. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

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No Swords, No Oaths: The Radical Reformation's Peaceful Protest

I finished my degree in Sociology with a minor in History, and since I work at a University that will let me receive more education for free, I've decided to pursue a second Bachelor's degree in Information Technology, and I'm finishing a minor in Religious Studies - just two classes to go! One of those classes is Religion, Violence and Peacebuilding (PHIL 366R), a fascinating exploration of how religious thought intersects with conflict and reconciliation. Each week, we study different scholars and reflect on their ideas through short writing assignments. This blog is where I share those reflections, weaving together academic insight and personal perspective.

With Labor Day falling on one of our class days, week 2 was significantly shorter. We were only assigned to read chapter 9 out of Fields of Blood by Karen Armstrong, and then for the weekly assignment, I read the Schleitheim Confession of 1527, and The Radical Reformation by Brad S. Gregory, which is chapter 4 in the Oxford History of the Reformation. I was then posed three different questions to answer in 500-600 words. Here are the questions:

What was the Radical Reformation? What makes this group distinct in relation to broader Reformation movements? Why is the Schleitheim Confession important in understanding core themes in our class?

Here is my assignment submission that answers those three questions:

    The Reformation started in the early 16th century when key figures like Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli challenged practices within the Catholic Church that they believed needed reform. While many traditions remained, their critiques led to the formation of new denominations such as Lutheranism and Calvinism, which emphasized that salvation comes through faith in Christ alone and that the Bible is the sole source of religious truth.

    However, other reformers diverged from this mainstream movement to push for even deeper changes. These leaders sought to create a completely new, purified church based solely on New Testament teachings, rejecting any involvement with the state. Thomas Muntzer, Menno Simons, and other Anabaptist leaders rejected infant baptism in favor of adult baptism, believing faith must be a personal and conscious decision. Their beliefs were considered radical and heretical by both Catholics and mainstream Protestants.

    One of the most important documents outlining Anabaptist beliefs is the Schleitheim Confession (1527), written during a time of persecution and theological confusion. It clarified their core principles so others could understand their distinct approach to Christianity.

1. They believe that only adults need to be baptized, and only those who choose it.
2. Members of their church who sin need to be corrected with love. If they don’t change then they should be excluded from the community only after repeated warnings.
3. Only those who are part of the community (baptized adults) should have communion as it is a symbol of unity and commitment to Christ.
4. Good Christians should live differently than the rest of society. They should avoid things that go against God’s teachings, including corrupt politics and false religion.
5. Pastors are chosen by the church and should live a simple life. Their role is to teach, guide, and care for the church. It is not to seek power or wealth.
6. Christians should not use violence or serve in the military. Christians believe in peace and following Jesus’ example of love and forgiveness.
7. Christians should not swear any oaths. They should always speak truthfully, so oaths are never necessary.

    Anabaptists were considered radical because they went far beyond the reforms proposed by Luther and Calvin. They challenged long-standing religious traditions, especially baptism, and redefined them. Unlike Lutherans and Calvinists, Anabaptists believed the church should be entirely separate from political power. They refused to swear oaths of allegiance or serve in government roles, which meant they received no political support.

    In a time when religion and warfare were deeply intertwined, most Anabaptists were strict pacifists, refusing to bear arms, participate in war, or use violence – even in self-defense. Their commitment to peace and voluntary faith made them targets of persecution from both Catholic and Protestant authorities.

    The Reformation had unintended consequences that led to deep divisions. While Martin Luther aimed to correct major problems within the Catholic Church, he did not intend for religion to lose its public role. However, once people began interpreting the Bible for themselves, disagreements multiplied. Many Protestant groups claimed to have the “correct interpretation,” leading to religious conflict and political instability.

    As religion and violence increasingly affected society, the need for tolerance became clear. People could not be forced to believe the same way. To stop the fighting, freedom of religion became essential. Over time, this led to the idea that religion should be less central to public life, paving the way for secularization.

References:

Armstrong, K. (2014). The arrival of religion. In Fields of blood: Religion and the history of violence. Alfred A. Knopf.

Gregory, B. S. (2022). The radical reformation. In P. Marshall (Ed.), The Oxford history of the Reformation (pp. 144–190). Oxford University Press.

Sattler, M. (1527). The Schleitheim Confession. Swiss Brethren Conference. (Original work translated by J. C. Wenger, 1945)

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Love Thy Neighbor... or Smite Them?

I finished my degree in Sociology with a minor in History, and since I work at a University that will let me receive more education for free, I've decided to pursue a second Bachelor's degree in Information Technology, and I'm finishing a minor in Religious Studies - just two classes to go! One of those classes is Religion, Violence and Peacebuilding (PHIL 366R), a fascinating exploration of how religious thought intersects with conflict and reconciliation. Each week, we study different scholars and reflect on their ideas through short writing assignments. This blog is where I share those reflections, weaving together academic insight and personal perspective.

Week 1, we started by reading the introduction to Laying Down the Sword by Philip Jenkins and a section in the Cambridge Companion to Religion and War titled Christian Crusading, Ritual, and Liturgy by M. Cecilia Gaposchkin. Then our assignment for the week was to read the introduction to The Sacred Fury by Charles Selengut and concisely summarize the key points in that particular work in 300-350 words. Here is my submission for that assignment:

    Charles Selengut explains that religion is meant to promote compassion, forgiveness, peace, love, and especially non-violence. Many scriptural passages condemn violence, yet the same texts also contain accounts of violent confrontations, divine commands for holy war, and other troubling acts. These contradictions create tension for believers navigating faith and morality.

    Selengut references Emile Durkheim, noting that religious commitment is often rooted in sacred truths believed to be divinely ordained. Followers may feel obligated to obey—even when commands seem irrational—because they trust in the source. Religion also promises rewards in the afterlife for obedience and discourages questioning.

    Religious institutions aim to provide social order, structure, and meaning, offering explanations for suffering and hope for redemption. However, leaders can exploit this structure to justify violence. Defining religious violence is complex; it includes not only physical harm but also psychological and symbolic injury. Selengut broadens the definition to include actions—verbal, written, or physical—that cause or threaten harm.

    The book explores five perspectives on religious violence. First, it examines how scriptures justify violence through divine command, as seen in the Crusades, Jihad, and the story of Joshua. Second, it looks at how violence can fulfill emotional or social needs, creating unity or moral justification. Third, it considers violence as a strategic response by groups who feel threatened or erased, using it to defend identity and mobilize support. The fourth perspective addresses apocalyptic violence, where perpetrators believe they are participating in a final battle between good and evil, seeking purification or salvation. The fifth explores sexual violence, focusing on the power religious institutions hold over members.

    Selengut concludes by urging readers not to stereotype religions as inherently violent or peaceful. He warns against simplistic generalizations, such as Islam being a warrior religion or Christianity being peaceful. All religions contain elements of both peace and violence. To understand religious violence, we must remain open-minded, informed, and neutral.

References:

Gaposchkin, M. C. (2023). Christian crusading, ritual, and liturgy. In M. Kitts (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Religion and War (pp. 385–401). Cambridge University Press.

Jenkins, P. (2011). Laying down the sword: Why we can't ignore the Bible's violent verses. HarperOne.

Selengut, C. (2008). Sacred fury: Understanding religious violence (2nd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.

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Location Tracking and Privacy Short Paper

I finished my degree in Sociology with a minor in History, and since I work at a University that will let me receive more education for free, I have decided to pursue a new degree in Information Technology. I am currently taking an entry-level tech class where I am exploring different types of technology and how it interacts with various fields, environments, and workplaces. This course is surprisingly heavy when it comes to shorter papers (2-5 pages), and so I will be uploading new content to this blog that will have a technology vibe to it. 

    I use a Google Pixel 6 smartphone, which runs on the Android operating system. Android determines location using a combination of GPS, Wi-Fi networks, cell towers, and Bluetooth signals. These technologies allow apps to access my location in real time, often without my direct input. Fortunately, Android gives users the control over location permissions, allowing me to manage which apps can access my location and when – whether only while the app is in use or even in the background. This paper explores how location services operate on my devices and investigates how three commonly used apps – Facebook, Transit, and Google Maps – collect and use location data. By reviewing their privacy policies and adjusting settings, I aim to better understand the balance between convenience and personal privacy.

1. Facebook: collects location data to personalize content, target ads, and suggest nearby events or friends. I can manage location settings and disable location history by going into my settings. Facebook tracks my location even when the app is not open if the background permissions are granted. According to SocialAppsHQ (n.d.), Their policy emphasized that location data is used for ad targeting, and users can opt out of some tracking features.

2. Transit: according to the Transit App (n.d.), tracks your real-time location, including latitude, longitude, speed, and time, to provide accurate transit data. Location tracking only occurs when the app is in the foreground, unless explicitly stated otherwise. Transit collects usage data, such as routes you interact with and device type. You can opt out by revoking location permissions in your phone settings.

3. Google Maps: uses your location for navigation, place recommendations, and location history. As of 2025, Google is shifting to store Timeline data on your device, rather than in the cloud. (Doffman, 2025) You can manage or delete your location history in your timeline, and your data is also used for ads and search personalization. (Google, 2025)

    To enhance privacy, I manually adjusted the settings for Facebook, Transit, and Google Maps on my Pixel 6 by disabling location access entirely through the app permissions menu. I also reviewed each app’s internal privacy settings to turn off location history, background tracking, and personalized features that rely on location data.

 

1. Facebook: I found instructions on iMyPass (n.d.) and CyberProtection (n.d.) to make my Facebook app more secure and prevent it from tracking my location, I can adjust several settings directly on my phone and within the app. On my Google Pixel 6 I went into the Settings > Apps > Facebook > Permissions > Location and selected “Don’t allow” to completely block Facebook from accessing my location. I then opened the Facebook app, tapped the menu (=) Settings & Privacy > Settings scrolled to Location and tapped Location History. I toggled Location History to Off. In the same location, settings menu, I looked for “Allow Location Access” and choose “Never” to prevent background tracking. I then went to Settings & Privacy > Settings > Activity Log. I tapped Filters > Categories > Logged Actions and Other Activity > Location History and deleted any stored location data.

2. Transit: According to the Transit App (n.d.), I can change privacy settings on my Google Pixel 6 by going to Settings > Apps > Transit > Permissions > Location and select “Don’t Allow” to block the app from accessing my location entirely. The App itself does not offer granular location privacy controls, but I can tap the gear icon at the top left on the main screen, scroll to “Getting around” > “Public transit” and disable transportation options I don’t use by unchecking them. I can also toggle off Transit map layers to reduce data visibility. I can change location access to “Ask every time” in Android settings, this way Transit only gets my location when I explicitly allow it.

3. Google Maps: to turn off location access for Google Maps I go to Settings > Apps > Google Maps > Permissions > Location and select “Don’t Allow” to block all location access. Open the Google Maps app, tap your profile icon > Your Timeline, tap the three-dot menu > Settings and privacy and under Location settings, turn off Location History. You can also delete past data by selecting “Delete all Location History.” If you don’t want location-based ads anymore, go to Google Account > Data & privacy > Ad settings and turn off Personalized ads. (Doffman, 2025) I noticed that once I had turned off all permissions, I can no longer receive turn-by-turn navigation to places or estimated travel times. I can still type in address or places and view maps and routes but without live tracking.

Based on the analysis, the following best practices are recommended:

1. Facebook: With all permissions turned off I can still view and post to Facebook and use the Messenger app. I won’t receive friend suggestions, receive local event recommendations, receive ads tailored to my location, and will not be able to tag a location. I don’t really use Facebook a lot and changing these settings won’t affect my use of the app. I think I will leave these settings in place for the time being.

2. Transit: I really cannot use this app with the changes I made, and I will need to change all the settings back. I use the bus daily to commute to work, the grocery store and everywhere else. When I changed all the settings, I am no longer able to use the “Go” feature which helps me navigate a route in real time. It stopped showing me which routes I can take, and I am no longer able to see which stops or routes are close to me. I lose all functions of the app if it cannot track my location in real time.

3. Google Maps: Instead of turning the setting to “Don’t Allow” I can have it set to “Ask every time” so I can choose when I want it to track me and I will still receive accurate directions, ETA estimates and navigations as long as I grant location access when prompted. I will avoid background tracking when the app is not in use, and I will still be able to use the app when needed.

    Based on my research, the best practices for maintaining privacy and security on a smartphone include regularly reviewing app permissions to understand what data each app can access and revoking any that are unnecessary. For location settings, it’s wise to choose “While using the app” or “Ask every time,” especially for apps that don’t require constant tracking. Disabling features like Location History and Precise Location further limits background data collection. Choosing apps that are transparent about their data practices and avoiding those with accessing or unclear permission helps reduce risk. Turning off ad personalization also minimizes tracking across platforms. Keeping your software up to date and using a strong screen lock are essential steps to protect your device from unauthorized access. (Consumer Reports, 2023).

    In an increasingly connected world, tracking has become a powerful tool embedded in everyday mobile experiences. Through this investigation of my Google Pixel 6 and the apps Facebook, Transit, and Google Maps, location services offer both convenience and complexity. While these apps rely on location data to provide personalized content, real-time transit updates, and accurate navigation, they also raise significant privacy concerns. By reviewing their privacy policies and adjusting permission, users can take meaningful steps to protect their personal data. Ultimately, maintaining privacy on a smartphone requires ongoing awareness, thoughtful permission management, and a willingness to prioritize security over convenience. As technology continues to evolve, so too must our understanding of how to safeguard our digital footprints.


References:

Consumer Reports. (2023, October 12). How to protect your privacy on your smartphone. Consumer Reports. Retrieved August 3, 2025, from https://www.consumerreports.org/electronics/privacy/how-to-protect-your-privacy-on-your-smartphone-a1047623171/

CyberProtection. (n.d.). Stop Meta from tracking your information on iOS and Android. CyberProtection. Retrieved August 3, 2025, from https://www.cyberprotection.com/post/stop-meta-from-tracking-information-on-ios-android

Doffman, Z. (2025, May 17). Google is deleting all your location data—Do not miss deadline. Forbes. Retrieved August 3, 2025, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/zakdoffman/2025/05/17/google-is-deleting-all-your-location-data-do-not-miss-deadline/

Doffman, Z. (2025, May 17). Google is tracking your every move—Here’s how to turn it off in 3 steps. Tom’s Guide. Retrieved August 3, 2025, from https://www.tomsguide.com/computing/mobile-apps/google-is-tracking-your-every-move-heres-how-to-turn-it-off-in-3-steps

Google LLC. (2025, July 1). Privacy policy. Google. Retrieved August 3, 2025, from https://policies.google.com/privacy?hl=en-US

iMyPass. (n.d.). How to stop Facebook from tracking your location. iMyPass. Retrieved August 3, 2025, from https://www.imypass.com/gps-location/stop-facebook-tracking/

SocialAppsHQ. (n.d.). Guide to Facebook privacy. SocialAppsHQ. Retrieved August 3, 2025, from https://www.socialappshq.com/facebook/guide-to-fb-privacy/

Transit App. (n.d.). Manage your public transit options. Transit. Retrieved August 3, 2025, from https://help.transitapp.com/article/107-manage-your-public-transit-options

Transit App. (n.d.). Privacy policy. Transit. Retrieved August 3, 2025, from https://transitapp.com/privacy

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Experimental Med/Tech: CRISPR-Based Gene Therapy Short Paper

I finished my degree in Sociology with a minor in History, and since I work at a University that will let me receive more education for free, I have decided to pursue a new degree in Information Technology. I am currently taking an entry-level tech class where I am exploring different types of technology and how it interacts with various fields, environments, and workplaces. This course is surprisingly heavy when it comes to shorter papers (2-5 pages), and so I will be uploading new content to this blog that will have a technology vibe to it. 

    Recent breakthroughs in gene-editing technology have opened new possibilities for treating genetic disorders. In late 2023, the FDA approved two CRIPSR-based gene therapies – Casgevy and Lyfgenia – for sickle cell disease, marking a significant milestone in precision medicine. These therapies work by modifying patients’ blood stem cells to increase fetal hemoglobin, which prevents the sickling of red blood cells. Sickle cell disease affects approximately 100,000 individuals in the United State and is associated with severe pain, organ damage and reduced life expectancy. The potential benefits of CRISPR-based therapies include improved quality of life, fewer complications, and reduced healthcare costs (U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2023). Traditional treatments such as blood transfusions and bone marrow transplants are costly, risky, and not curative. In contrast, CRISPR therapy offers the possibility of a one-time, curative solution. (Saionz, 2025).

    The core innovation behind CRIPSR-based gene therapy for sickle cell disease (SCD) lies in its ability to precisely edit a patient’s DNA to correct or bypass the genetic defect responsible for the condition. CRIPSR/Cas9 is a groundbreaking gene-editing tool that enables scientists to target and modify specific genes with remarkable accuracy. In the case of SCD, the therapy focuses on editing blood stem cells to increase the production of fetal hemoglobin (HbF) – a from of hemoglobin that does not sickle and can functionally replace the defective adult hemoglobin (Azar, 2024). Stem cells are harvested from the patient’s bone marrow and edited using CRISPR/Cas9 to disrupt the BCL11A gene, which normally suppresses HbF production. The modified stem cells are then re-infused into the patient, where they begin generating healthy red blood cells containing fetal hemoglobin (Harvard Medical School, 2025). This approach offers the potential for a one-time, curative treatment, rather than lifelong disease management.

    Sickle cell disease is a debilitating blood disorder, and CRISPR-based gene therapy offers new hope for patients who have long suffered from chronic pain, anemia, organ damage, stroke, and reduced life expectancy. By addressing the root genetic cause, this therapy has the potential to dramatically improve quality of life. Beyond sickle cell disease, CRISPR technology holds promise for treating other inherited blood disorders, such as beta-thalassemia, which also results from faulty hemoglobin production. The broader category of hemoglobinopathies presents numerous opportunities for gene-editing research. Additionally, scientists are exploring whether CRISPR could be adapted to target certain cancers or rare genetic conditions like muscular dystrophy and cystic fibrosis (Saionz, 2025)

    For patients undergoing CRISPR therapy, the immediate benefits include a reduction in painful episodes caused by blocked blood flow from sickled cells. Many report decreased fatigue, fewer hospital visits, and an increased ability to participate in daily activities. These improvements also benefit healthcare systems by reducing emergency room visits and streamlining treatment into one-time intervention rather than ongoing management.

    As with any groundbreaking medical innovation, CRISPR-based gene therapy raises important concerns about access, affordability, and responsible use. Sickle cell disease disproportionately affects individuals of African descent, particularly those in low-income communities. These populations have historically faced systematic barriers to healthcare, and there is growing concern that advanced treatments like CRISPR may not be equitably distributed (Molteni, 2023). The launch prices for the FDA-approved therapies – Casgevy and Lyfgenia – are staggering, making them inaccessible to most patients without substantial insurance coverage or government assistance. In response, the U.S. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services introduced the Cell and Gene Therapy Access Model, which allows states to negotiate outcome-based payment agreements with manufacturers. This initiative acknowledges that many individuals who need these therapies are also among those least able to afford them. (Cohen, 2025).

    While CRISPR technology is revolutionizing healthcare, it also has profound implications across other fields – particularly agriculture. Scientists have used CRISPR to enhance crop yield, nutritional value, and resistance to pests, diseases, and environmental stress. It has been applied to boost levels of vitamins and minerals, improve taste and shelf life, and reduce allergens in food. For example, susceptibility genes in crops like rice and wheat have been knocked out to make them resistant to fungal and bacterial infections. Instead of relying on chemical pesticides, crops can be edited to naturally deter pests, increasing insect resistance. CRISPR also enables crops to survive with less water or thrive in extreme climates such as heat or cold (Atimango, 2024). Many of these foods are already part of our food system, often labeled as GMOs. However, regulatory approaches vary: some countries treat CRISPR-edited foods like traditional GMOs, while others – such as the United States – do not, provided no foreign DNA is introduced. Public acceptance of CRISPR-edited foods varies widely, and education will be key to building trust and understanding.

    CRIPSR-based gene therapy represents a groundbreaking advancement in the treatment of sickle cell disease, offering the possibility of a one-time cure for the condition that has long been managed through costly and limited interventions. While the scientific and clinical benefits are profound, the technology also raises important questions about equitable access, affordability, and responsible use. Beyond healthcare, CRISPR’s potential extends into agriculture and other fields, demonstrating its versatility and transformative power. As research and policy continue to evolve, it will be essential to ensure that these innovations are both effective and accessible to those who need them most.


Resources:

Atimango, Alice. O (2024). Genome Editing in Food and Agriculture. Trends in Food Science & Technology. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-1669(24)00063-6

Azar, S. (2024, June 10). CRISPR gene therapy for sickle cell disease. Mass General Brigham. https://www.massgeneralbrigham.org/en/about/newsroom/articles/gene-therapy-for-sickle-cell-disease

Cohen, J. (2025, August 2). Novel access model for sickle cell disease gene therapy could be template. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/joshuacohen/2025/08/02/novel-access-model-for-sickle-cell-disease-gene-therapy-could-be-template/

Harvard Medical School. (2025, February 20). Creating the world’s first CRISPR medicine, for sickle cell disease. https://hms.harvard.edu/news/creating-worlds-first-crispr-medicine-sickle-cell-diseaseSaionz, A. (2025, July 1). Cell & gene therapies in 2025: Breakthroughs, challenges, and the path to accessible innovation.

Molteni, M. (2023, March 7). CRISPR cures for sickle cell disease raise equity concerns. STAT. https://www.statnews.com/2023/03/07/crispr-sickle-cell-access/

PharmaBoardroom. https://pharmaboardroom.com/articles/cell-gene-therapies-in-2025-breakthroughs-challenges-and-the-path-to-accessible-innovation/

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2023, December 8). FDA approves first gene therapies to treat patients with sickle cell disease [Press release]. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-gene-therapies-treat-patients-sickle-cell-disease

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Virtual PCR Lab Short Paper

I finished my degree in Sociology with a minor in History, and since I work at a University that will let me receive more education for free, I have decided to pursue a new degree in Information Technology. I am currently taking an entry-level tech class where I am exploring different types of technology and how it interacts with various fields, environments, and workplaces. This course is surprisingly heavy when it comes to shorter papers (2-5 pages), and so I will be uploading new content to this blog that will have a technology vibe to it. 

    The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a cornerstone technique in molecular biology that enables scientists to amplify specific segments of DNA with remarkable precision and efficiency. Developed in the 1980s, PCR has transformed biological research and diagnostics by allowing the replication of millions of copies of a DNA sequence from a minimal starting sample. This process mimics natural DNA replication but is carried out in a controlled laboratory setting using cycles of heating and cooling. PCR is now indispensable in fields ranging from medical diagnostics and forensics science to genetic research and biotechnology, offering a powerful tool for analyzing genetic material quickly and accurately. (Wellcome Connecting Science)

    Denaturation is the first step in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) cycle. During this phase, the reaction mixture is heated to a high temperature, 95 degrees according to the simulation. This heat causes the hydrogen bonds between the two strands of the DNA double helix to break, effectively separating the DNA into single strands. This separation is crucial because it exposes the nucleotide sequences, allowing primers to bind during the next step (annealing). Without denaturation, the DNA strand would remain paired, and the polymerase enzyme wouldn’t be able to access the template for replication.

    Following denaturation, the PCR mixture is cooled to a lower temperature, 50 degrees according to the simulation, to allow the annealing step to occur. During this phase, short DNA primers bind, or anneal, to their complimentary sequences on the single-stranded DNA templates. Primers are essential because they provide a starting point for DNA synthesis. Each primer is designed to match a specific region flanking DNA sequence. The temperature must be carefully controlled: too high, and the primers won’t bind; too low, and they might bind non-specifically.

    The final step in the PCR cycle is extension, which occurs at 72 degrees according to the simulation, the optimal temperature for the enzyme Taq polymerase. During this phase, Taq polymerase attaches to the primers that have bound to the single-stranded DNA and begins to synthesize new DNA strands by adding complementary nucleotides. This process effectively rebuilds the double-stranded DNA, using the original strand as a template. Each cycle of PCR results in a doubling of the target DNA sequence, leading to exponential amplification over multiple cycles. In the simulation, this step is shown as the enzyme moving along the DNA strand, extending it by adding matching base pairs, and completing the replication process for that cycle.

    After completing the PCR simulation, the final outcome showed a successful amplification of the target DNA sequence. Each cycle approximately doubles the amount of DNA, leading to exponential growth. After 30 cycles there were over a billion copies. (University of Utah)

    A compelling real-world example of PCR is its use in medical diagnostics, particularly in detecting infectious diseases like COVID-19. During the pandemic, PCR tests became the gold standard for identifying active infections due to their high sensitivity and specificity. PCR was used to detect the presence of SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19, by amplifying viral RNA (converted to DNA via reverse transcription). This allowed healthcare providers to identify infected individuals quickly and accurately, even when viral loads were low. (cognifyo) The positive impacts of this were widespread testing and early detection, informed public health decisions and containment strategies, and supported vaccine development and monitoring of variants. Ethical consideration of this real-world example could be the handling of genetic data that raises questions about data protection and consent, disparities in testing availability, and the misinterpretation of results that could lead to unnecessary isolation or missed diagnoses. This application shows how PCR can be both a powerful tool and a source of ethical debate, especially when deployed at scale in public health contexts.

    Exploring the PCR process through the Learn.Genetics simulation deepened my understanding of how each step – denaturation, annealing, and extension – contributes to the precise amplification of DNA. Seeing the process unfold visually helped reinforce the theoretical knowledge I had gained through research. The simulation also highlighted the importance of temperature control and the role of enzymes and primers in ensuring accurate replication. It was fascinating to observe how a relatively simple cycle, when repeated, could yield billions of DNA copies. This hands-on experience made the abstract concept of exponential amplification much more tangible and meaningful.

Resources:

Cognifyo. (n.d.). Understanding PCR: Test mechanism and impact. https://cognifyo.com/articles/understanding-pcr-test-mechanism-impact/

University of Utah. (n.d.). PCR virtual lab. Learn.Genetics. https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/labs/pcr/

Wellcome Connecting Science. (n.d.). What is PCR? (Polymerase chain reaction). YourGenome. https://www.yourgenome.org/theme/what-is-pcr-polymerase-chain-reaction/


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